PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT ON CAPILLARY RISE

PHYSICS PROJECT REPORT ON CAPILLARY RISE

Capillary action (sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, capillary effect, or wicking) is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paint-brush, in a thin tube, in porous materials such as paper and plaster, in some non-porous materials such as sand and liquefied carbon fiber, or in a cell. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid.

History

The first recorded observation of capillary action was by Leonardo da Vinci.A former student of Galileo, Niccolò Aggiunti (it), was said to have investigated capillary action In 1660, capillary action was still a novelty to the Irish chemist Robert Boyle, when he reported that “some inquisitive French Men” had observed that when a capillary tube was dipped into water, the water would ascend to “some height in the Pipe”. Boyle then reported an experiment in which he dipped a capillary tube into red wine and then subjected the tube to a partial vacuum. He found that the vacuum had no observable influence on the height of the liquid in the capillary, so the behavior of liquids in capillary tubes was due to some phenomenon different from that which governed mercury barometers

Others soon followed Boyle’s lead.Some (e.g., Honoré Fabri Jacob Bernoull) thought that liquids rose in capillaries because air could not enter capillaries as easily as liquids, so the air pressure was lower inside capillaries. Others (e.g., Isaac Vossius Giovanni Alfonso Borelli,Louis Carré,Francis Hauksbee,Josia Weitbrecht thought that the particles of liquid were attracted to each other and to the walls of the capillary.

Although experimental studies continued during the 18th century a successful quantitative treatment of capillary action was not attained until 1805 by two investigators: Thomas Young of the United Kingdom and Pierre-Simon Laplace of France. They derived the Young–Laplace equation of capillary action. By 1830, the German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss had determined the boundary conditions governing capillary action (i.e., the conditions at the liquid-solid interface)In 1871, the British physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) determined the effect of the meniscus on a liquid’s vapor pressure—a relation known as the Kelvin equation.German physicist Franz Ernst Neumann (1798–1895) subsequently determined the interaction between two immiscible liquids

Albert Einstein‘s first paper, which was submitted to Annalen der Physik in 1900, was on capillarity

Phenomena and physics of capillary action[

Capillary flow experiment to investigate capillary flows and phenomena aboard the International Space Station

A common apparatus used to demonstrate the phenomenon is the capillary tube. When the lower end of a vertical glass tube is placed in a liquid, such as water, a concave meniscus forms. Adhesion occurs between the fluid and the solid inner wall pulling the liquid column up until there is a sufficient mass of liquid for gravitational forces to overcome these intermolecular forces. The contact length (around the edge) between the top of the liquid column and the tube is proportional to the radius of the tube, while the weight of the liquid column is proportional to the square of the tube’s radius. So, a narrow tube will draw a liquid column higher than a wider tube will, given that the inner water molecules cohere sufficiently to the outer ones.

In plants and animals

Capillary action is seen in many plants. Water is brought high up in trees by branching; evaporation at the leaves creating depressurization; probably by osmotic pressure added at the roots; and possibly at other locations inside the plant, especially when gathering humidity with air roots.

Capillary action for uptake of water has been described in some small animals, such as Ligia exoticaand Moloch horridu

Examples

Capillary action is essential for the drainage of constantly produced tear fluid from the eye. Two canaliculi of tiny diameter are present in the inner corner of the eyelid, also called the lacrimal ducts; their openings can be seen with the naked eye within the lacrymal sacs when the eyelids are everted.

Wicking is the absorption of a liquid by a material in the manner of a candle wick. Paper towels absorb liquid through capillary action, allowing a fluid to be transferred from a surface to the towel. The small pores of a sponge act as small capillaries, causing it to absorb a large amount of fluid. Some textile fabrics are said to use capillary action to “wick” sweat away from the skin. These are often referred to as wicking fabrics, after the capillary properties of candle and lamp wicks.

Capillary action is observed in thin layer chromatography, in which a solvent moves vertically up a plate via capillary action. In this case the pores are gaps between very small particles.

Capillary action draws ink to the tips of fountain pen nibs from a reservoir or cartridge inside the pen.

With some pairs of materials, such as mercury and glass, the intermolecular forces within the liquid exceed those between the solid and the liquid, so a convex meniscus forms and capillary action works in reverse.

In hydrology, capillary action describes the attraction of water molecules to soil particles. Capillary action is responsible for moving groundwater from wet areas of the soil to dry areas. Differences in soil potential ({\displaystyle \Psi _{m}}) drive capillary action in soil.

Height of a meniscus

Water height in a capillary plotted against capillary diameter

The height h of a liquid column is given by Jurin’s Law

{\displaystyle h={{2\gamma \cos {\theta }} \over {\rho gr}},}

where {\displaystyle \scriptstyle \gamma } is the liquid-air surface tension (force/unit length), θ is the contact angle, ρ is the density of liquid (mass/volume), g is the local acceleration due to gravity (length/square of time, and r is the radius of tube. Thus the thinner the space in which the water can travel, the further up it goes.

For a water-filled glass tube in air at standard laboratory conditions, γ = 0.0728 N/m at 20 °C, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, and g = 9.81 m/s2. For these values, the height of the water column is

{\displaystyle h\approx {{1.48\times 10^{-5}} \over r}\ {\mbox{m}}.}

Thus for a 2 m (6.6 ft) radius glass tube in lab conditions given above, the water would rise an unnoticeable 0.007 mm (0.00028 in). However, for a 2 cm (0.79 in) radius tube, the water would rise 0.7 mm (0.028 in), and for a 0.2 mm (0.0079 in) radius tube, the water would rise 70 mm (2.8 in).

Liquid transport in porous media

Capillary flow in a brick, with a sorptivity of 5.0 mm·min−1/2 and a porosity of 0.25.

When a dry porous medium, such as a brick or a wick, is brought into contact with a liquid, it will start absorbing the liquid at a rate which decreases over time. When considering evaporation, liquid penetration will reach a limit dependent on parameters of temperature, humidity and permeability. For a bar of material with cross-sectional area A that is wetted on one end, the cumulative volume V of absorbed liquid after a time t is

{\displaystyle V=AS{\sqrt {t}},}

where S is the sorptivity of the medium, in units of m·s−1/2 or mm·min−1/2. This time dependence relation is similar to Washburn’s equation for the wicking in capillaries and capillary media. The quantity

{\displaystyle i={\frac {V}{A}}}

is called the cumulative liquid intake, with the dimension of length. The wetted length of the bar, that is the distance between the wetted end of the bar and the so-called wet front, is dependent on the fraction f of the volume occupied by voids. This number f is the porosity of the medium; the wetted length is then

{\displaystyle x={\frac {i}{f}}={\frac {S}{f}}{\sqrt {t}}.}

Some authors use the quantity S/f as the sorptivity The above description is for the case where gravity and evaporation do not play a role.

Sorptivity is a relevant property of building materials, because it affects the amount of rising dampness. Some values for the sorptivity of building materials are in the table below.

Material Sorptivity
(mm·min−1/2)		 Source
Aerated concrete 0.50 [30]
Gypsum plaster 3.50 [30]
Clay brick 1.16 [30]
Mortar 0.70 [30]
Concrete brick 0.20 [30]

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Physics Projects with Reports:

  1. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT FOR TOUCH ALARM.
  2. EDDY CURRENT {WITHOUT MODEL }
  3. PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELL
  4. MUTUAL INDUCTION
  5. TO STUDY NPN-TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER
  6. TO CONSTRUCT A ELECTRIC MOTORS (D.C.MOTOR)
  7. TO STUDY HOW A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER WORK ‘PNP’ AMPLIFIER TRANSISTOR.
  8. HOUSEHOLD CIRCUITS
  9. AC TO DC CONVERTER (FULL WAVE RECTIFIER)
  10. AC TO DC CONVERTER (HALF WAVE RECTIFIER)
  11. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF FENCE WIRE BURGLAR ALARM
  12. TO SHOW THE PRINCIPLE OF FARADAY’S AND A.C. GENERATOR.
  13. THERMOCOUPLE
  14. TO STUDY FARADAY’S LAWS-TO FIND THE CHARGE ON AN ELECTRON
  15. FARADAY’S LAW’S OF ELECTROLYSIS
  16. TO STUDY A POSITIVE FEED BACK CIRCUIT OF AN AUDIO OSCILLATOR (LC OSCILLATOR)
  17. HOW DOES AN ELECTRIC GENERATOR WORK
  18. TO SHOW THAT A SOLENOID CARRYING AN ELECTRIC CURRENT PRODUCES A MAGNETIC FIELD SIMILAR TO THAT PRODUCED BY A BAR MAGNET.
  19. ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL (PRIMARY CELL)
  20. BOOLAN LOGIC GATE
  21. TO STUDY THE CHARGE AND DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR IN SERIES
  22. WORKING OF POTENTIOMETER
  23. KIRCHOFF’S LAW
  24. TO DEMONSTRATE THE WORKING OF AN ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR BY MEANS OF ITS CHARGING AND DISCHARGING WITH THE HELP OF AN AUDIO OSCILLATOR AND TO STUDY AND COMPARE THE TWO CAPACITORS UNDER SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATION.(Z)
  25. RADIOACTIVITY AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS.
  26. RADIOISOTOPE THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR.
  27. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF SOUND OPERATED SWITCH.
  28. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF TIME OPERATED SWITCH.
  29. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF SOUND AMPLIFIER.
  30. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF A FIRE ALARM.
  31. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF CLAP SWITCH.
  32. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF TRANSISTOR SWITCH
  33. TO FIND OUT OPTICAL ACTIVITY ARISES WHEN THE POLARIZATION AXIS OF LIGHT IS ROTATED AS IT PASSES THROUGH A SUBSTANCE
  34. PUSH-PULL AMPLIFIER
  35. HARTLEY OSCILLATORS
  36. PUSH PULL AMPLIFIER
  37. REPORT ON MAGNETIC FIELDS, MAGNETIC FORCES, AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION LAWS OF REFRACTION (Z).
  38. RAY OPTICS-TO FIND REFRACTIVE INDEX OF THE MATERIAL OF THE PRISM BY TOTAL INTERNAL REFRACTION (Z).
  39. TO DEMONSTRATE THE WORKING OF AN ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR BY MEANS OF ITS CHARGING AND DISCHARGING WITH THE HELP OF AN AUDIO OSCILLATOR AND TO STUDY AND COMPARE THE TWO CAPACITORS UNDER SERIES AND PARALLEL COMBINATIONS.
  40. TO STUDY THE EFFECT OF THE DIAMETER AND THE NUMBER OF TURNS OF THE SPRING ON ITS STRENGTH HAS BEEN INVESTIGATION IN THIS STUDY.(Z)
  41. TO FIND OUT THE THERMAL COEFFICIENT OF RESISTANCE FOR A DIVAN SET OF WIRES AND THUS SUGGEST THE WIRE IN WHICH ENERGY LOSS DUE TO HEAT GENERATION IS MINIMUN.(Z)
  42. TO SEE THAT WATER CONDUCTS ELECTRICITY BETTER WHEN IMPURITIES ARE ADDED IT. (Z)
  43. TO MAKE NOR GATE WITH THE COMBINATION OF TWO GATES. (Z)
  44. PASCAL’S LAW AND ITS APPLICATIONS
  45. BRIDGE RECTIFIER- A CIRCUIT USING FOUR DIODES TO PROVIDE FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION.CONVERTS AN AC VOLTAGE TO A PULSATING DC VOLTAGE.
  46. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF QUIZ BUZZER.
  47. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF LASER SECURITY SYSTEM.
  48. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF RAIN ALARM.
  49. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF WATER LEVEL INDICATOR.
  50. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DISPOSABLE AND NON DISPOSABLE BATTERIES
  51. TO INVESTIGATE THE EFFECT OF THE FOLLOWING FACTORS ON THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A LACLANCHE CELL.
  52. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF OPTICAL SWITCHING.
  53. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OFCAPACITOR CHARGE OSCILATOR
  54. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OFCAPACITOR STORAGE LED
  55. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF TWO TRANSISTOR OSCILLATOR
  56. EXPERIMENTS IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY
  57. TO SHOW THE UNIDIRECTION ACTION OF DIODE
  58. OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
  59. TO CONSTRUCT A CIRCUIT OF ELECTRONIC EYE

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